Hu Said: Cardiology Board Review Series

In this episode, we review pulmonic stenosis (PS) and pulmonic regurgitation (PR). How do you distinguish between the click of pulmonic stenosis, aortic stenosis, Ebstein anomaly, and mitral valve pr…

In this episode, we review tricuspid stenosis (TS) and tricuspid regurgitation (TR). What are the echocardiographic criteria for diagnosing severe TS, and how does it differ from that of severe mitra…

In this episode, we review the management of mitral regurgitation (MR). How is the management of chronic primary MR, chronic secondary, and acute MR different from each other? What is the relative di…

In this episode, we review methods to quantify the severity of mitral regurgitation (MR), including the calculation of effective regurgitant orifice area (EROA) and regurgitant volume (RVol) by the p…

In this episode, we explore how mitral regurgitation (MR) is categorized based on anatomy, leaflet motion, and acuity. Are the A1, A2, A3, P1, P2, P3 scallops/segments of the mitral valve named from …

In this episode, we review mitral stenosis (MS), including its epidemiology, presentation, imaging features, and management. What are the main causes of MS? What do the the characteristic "fish mouth…

In this episode, we review the types, presentation, physical exam, and management of aortic regurgitation (AR). What is the difference between types Ia, Ib, Ic, Id, II, and III aortic regurgitation? …

In this episode, we explore the timing and indications for aortic valve replacement (AVR) in aortic stenosis (AS). Is it possible to qualify for AVR if AS is not severe, or if AS is asymptomatic? Wha…

In this episode, we explore various types of aortic valve stenosis (AS) other than conventional AS, including low-gradient AS, bicuspid and unicuspid valves, subvalvular and supravalvular AS. What is…

In this episode, we explore the epidemiology of valvular disease, and then jump in to aortic stenosis, focusing on the presentation, grading of severity, measurement of gradients on invasive and non-…

In this episode, we review post-heart transplant issues, including immunosuppression, rejection, complications, and long-term monitoring. What are the three phases of immunosuppression? How do calcin…

In this episode, we review pre-heart transplantation issues, including indications for heart transplant, exclusion criteria for heart transplant, levels of listing for heart transplant, and serial te…

In this episode, we review cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) and its role in heart failure management and transplant evaluation. What term describes the value at which oxygen uptake plateaus de…

In this episode, we review the use of imaging in assessing patients before and after LVAD implantation. What are concerning findings on pre-LVAD echocardiogram, other than an overly small left ventri…

In this episode, we review patient selection for left ventricular assist devices (LVADs), LVAD types, components, physiology, and troubleshooting. LVAD evaluation may be reasonable in patients in whi…

In this episode, we go over the practical use and management of intra-aortic balloon pumps (IABP) in the cardiac intensive care unit. How does the IABP assist during systole and diastole, and what ar…

In this episode, we review the use of inotropes in acute decompensated heart failure and cardiogenic shock? What are the effects of activating alpha-1 receptors, beta-1 receptors, and beta-2 receptor…

In this episode, we review central venous pressure (CVP) waveform interpretation. What is signified by the a, c, and v waves, and the x and y descents? What do giant a peaks signify? What do cannon a…

In this episode, we review pulmonary artery (Swan-Ganz) catheterization. What are indications and contraindications to pulmonary artery catheter placement? What variables make up the oxygen content e…

In this episode, we review the assessment of right ventricular (RV) size and function. What is the normal range of RV basal diameter, mid diameter, and longitudinal diameter? What are the relative ad…